Mexico to USA Migration Case Study

Migration is the movement of people from one area to another, be it across the road, or to the other side of the earth. Everyday over 2000 Mexicans try and cross the 2000km border that spans between Mexico and the USA. The immigrants walk for miles to try and illegally enter the country and for many it is a wasted journey as they are returned shortly after by the US border patrol police. The immigrants usually travel in groups of 10 and up, friends and families together as a large group. To try and make the journey easier they will often travel lightly, meaning they carry no heavy, but vital, supplies such as food and water. This often leads to things such as dehydration and death as they cross the hot and dry border. Another way the immigrants will try and gain access is through human smugglers, whereby the immigrants will pay the smugglers large sums of money to smuggle them across the border. Once across the border it's now a game of ‘hide and seek' with the immigration officers. After crossing the border without being caught they will usually meet in some form of safe house, usually provided by the human smugglers. Once they are settled they will often rent houses in large groups so that can cut the costs dramatically and easily afford it. They can't stay for long though as eventually they would be caught, so to keep their trail clean they move from house to house as not to alert the police. WHY MIGRATE? People migrate places for many different reasons be it for family or money ect. These reasons can be classified as 4 different categories; economic, social, political or environmental: * Economic migration – moving to find work or to follow a particular career path only available in such place * Social Migration – moving for a better quality of life or to live with or closer to family or friends * Political Migration – moving to escape/avoid political disputes, persecution or war. * Environmental Migration – moving to escape natural disasters such as flooding For the reasons above many people choose to migrate. For example migrants who move country to find work for money and food. Other migrants are forced during times of war and natural disaster. MAP Below is a map of the USA and Mexico. The map shows the movement of migrants as the cross the USA/Mexico border. The highest rates of migrants are found to be from the bordering states living in the USA's bordering states. The arrows on the map point from where most Mexican migrants come from, and where they usually end up. They want the journey to be as quick as possible; they don't travel far and often stay in the neighboring states. Migrant Movement Border between Mexico and the USA PUSH AND PULL FACTORS Just like everything in life there is always something that makes you want do something else. The same applies to the Mexican migrants and there are many ‘push and pull' factors for why the Mexican migrants would want to migrate. Push Factors Push factors are the reasons why people are pushed away from and what to leave an area. There are many push factors for why migrants would want to leave their country and I have listed the most common below. They are all traits of an LEDC, where most migrants come for. * Lack of services – often a problem in LEDC's where most migrants are from. Poor countries cannot afford to provide good quality services as MEDC's do. * Lack of safety – often a problem in LEDC's, people cannot afford to pay for repairs and safety equipment ect and things go to ruin. * High crime – often a problem in poorer countries as people cannot find work or don't earn enough money to make ends meet, many people turn to crime. * Crop failure – this isn't just something you seen in poor countries but for a poor country it is a big loss and could be the final push someone needs to just get out of their old life. * Drought – this often leads to crop failure and as I mentioned above this can be a big problem for someone relying on it to feed their family. * Flooding – flooding is serious business and can cause masses of damage even destroying houses, losing your house could make you want to migrate to a better life. * Poverty – nobody likes having no money, well imagine spending everyday barely making ends meet, you'd want change and quick. * War – refuges often migrate to escape the terror and dangers of war as civilian casualties are often high in LEDC wars. Pull Factors Pull factors are the reasons why people want to and are pulled towards an area. There are many factors for why migrants would want to live in another country and I have listed the most common below. They are all traits of an MEDC, where most migrants migrate to. * Higher employment – as is often the case in MEDC's there is much more jobs available with much higher wages. * More wealth – In MEDC's people on average tend to have more money, due to the higher paid jobs. * Better services – More money means better services, things such as emergency personnel, education ect. * Safer, less crime – Places with more money tend to have less crime as people can afford to pay their way. * Political stability – Less chance of a political breakdown and wars breaking out. * More fertile land – less chance of losing crops and crops will be stronger and better than ever earring the farmer more money for his work. * Lower risk of natural hazards – natural disasters destroy just about everything from your home to your family. Moving away from them would be the best option. IMPACTS OF MIGRATION Immigration has both positive and its negative effects on the countries. The major problem that Mexico has with the immigration of its people to the USA is that the majority of migrants are young, without families. This means that old people are left behind in Mexico and this has no good effects on Mexico's population. The older people cannot look after themselves or even boost the population for that matter. This is truer as in Mexico it's usually the men who migrate leaving the women behind to look after their family whilst the men bring money in from a job in the USA. There is also the big problem with Mexico's economy. The country is already very poor and with most people immigrating to America to find work there is no way money is every going to get back into Mexico's economy. For this reason many people turn to the drugs business producing and exporting drugs to distribute across the USA. Although this brings money into the country its accounts for m any deaths across the country and is not taxed and therefore the government looses out again. In the USA, Immigrants cost the country millions of us dollars a year. The money is spent on enforcing the border patrols and the migrants being held for deportation. The problem the USA have is that the Mexican's take all of the low paid, labor intensive jobs and are very happy and grateful of the opportunity. Americans on the other hand are less for the idea and as the Mexicans become more popular racial attacks are often a big problem. For the USA though the Mexicans doing the low paid jobs is perfectly good for the economy, the work gets done at a low price, and the workers are enthusiastic, very great full of the opportunity they have gotten, what more could you ask for? Problems arise in America when immigrants start to gain sate benefits. With the migrants being illegal they're not on record and hence are not accounted for the distribution of benefits, America could lose lots of money through benefit fraud. WHAT IS THE USA DOING TO STOP ILLIGAL IMMIGRARTION? One of the most important methods of stopping illegal immigration America uses is border patrol security. This method involves the border between Mexico and the USA being patrolled by security officers in order to try and stop any immigrants from illegally entering the country. The officers use many methods of enforcement and even have drones that can fly the border and spot any intruders. The officers are armed and will take down anybody trying to breach security, sounds harsh but essentially what the immigrants are doing is putting the countries security at risk by crossing the border as they cannot keep tabs on who is entering. MY OPINION My opinion on Mexico-America immigration is slightly mixed. On one hand for America's sake I think that more of an effort should be made to control immigration so as not ruin both Mexico's and America's economy. This will also stop Mexico's population for dropping, which if it did drop would result in the economy of Mexico being even worse. As long as the immigration is controlled and not stopped then I am sure that the relationship will work and that America would benefit economically from it. On the other hand though it doesn't feel right not allowing the Mexicans access to America, because they're immigrants. At the end of the day the USA was originally founded by immigrants from Europe, not to mention the fact that during the Mexico-US war, the USA ‘stole' (some argue it was paid for) ; Texas, Arizona, new Mexico and California from Mexico. In my opinion they have every right to enter America as they will.

Cory aquino Essay

Marà ­a Corazà ³n Sumulong â€Å"Cory† Cojuangco Aquino was born on January 25, 1933, in Paniqui, Tarlac, Marà ­a Corazà ³n â€Å"Cory† Sumulong Cojuangco was the fourth child of Josà © Cojuangco, Sr. and Demetria Sumulong. Her siblings were Pedro, Josephine, Teresita, Jose, Jr. and Maria Paz. Both Aquino’s parents came from prominent clans. Her father was a prominent Tarlac businessman and politician, and her great-grandfather, Melecio Cojuangco, was a member of the historic Malolos Congress. Her mother, Demetria, belonged to the Sumulong family of Rizal who were politically influential; Juan Sumulong, a prominent member of the clan, ran against Commonwealth President Manuel L. Quezon in 1941. As a young girl, she spent her elementary days at St. Scholastica’s College in Manila, where she graduated on top of her class and batch as valedictorian. For high school, she transferred toAssumption Convent for her first year of high school. Afterwards, she went to the United States to finish her secondary education. There she continued her college education. She went to theCollege of Mount Saint Vincent in New York City, where she majored in Mathematics and French. During her stay in the United States, Aquino volunteered for the campaign of U.S. Republican presidential candidate Thomas Dewey against then Democrat U.S. President Harry S. Truman during the 1948 U.S. Presidential Election. After graduating from college, she returned to the Philippines to study law at the Far Eastern University (owned by the in-laws of her elder sister, Josephine Reyes) for one year. She married Sen.Benigno S. Aquino, Jr., son of the late Speaker Benigno S. Aquino, Sr. and a grandson of General Servillano Aquino. The couple had five children: Marà ­a Elena (born August 18, 1955), Aurora Corazà ³n (born December 27, 1957), Benigno Simeon III (born February 8, 1960), Victoria Elisa (born October 27, 1961) and Kristina Bernadette (born February 14, 1971). Corazà ³n Aquino had difficulty initially adjusting to provincial life when she and her husband moved to Concepcion, Tarlac in 1955. Aquino found herself bored in Concepcion, and welcomed the opportunity to have dinner with her husband inside the American military facility at nearby Clark Field. A member of the Liberal Party, Aquino’s husband Ninoy rose to become the youngest  governor in the country and eventually became the youngest senator ever elected in the Senate of the Philippines in 1967. During her husband’s political career, Aquino remained a housewife who helped raise their children and played hostess to her spouse’s political allies who would frequent their Quezon City home. She would decline to join her husband on stage during campaign rallies, preferring instead to stand at the back of the audience and listen to him. Unknown to many, she voluntarily sold some of her prized inheritance to fund the candidacy of her husband. She led a modest existence in a bungalow in suburban Quezon City. Ninoy Aquino soon emerged as a leading critic of the government of President Ferdinand Marcos. He was then touted as a strong candidate for president to succeed Marcos in the 1973 elections. However, Marcos, being barred by the Constitution to seek a third term, declared martial law on September 21, 1972, and later abolished the existing 1935 Constitution, thereby allowing him to remain in office. As a consequence, her husband was among those to be first arrested at the onset of martial law, later being sentenced to death. During his incarceration, Ninoy sought strength from prayer, attending daily mass and saying the rosary three times a day. As a measure of sacrifice and solidarity with her husband and all other political prisoners, she enjoined her children from attending parties and she also stopped going to the beauty salon or buying new clothes until a priest advised her and her children to instead live as normal lives as possible. In 1978, despite her initial opposition, Ninoy decided to run in the 1978 Batasang Pambansa elections. A reluctant speaker, Corazà ³n Aquino campaigned in behalf of her husband, and for the first time in her life delivered a political speech. In 1980, upon the intervention of U.S. President Jimmy Carter, Marcos allowed Senator Aquino and his family to leave for exile in the United States, where he sought medical treatment.[4] The family settled in Boston, and Aquino would later call the next three years as the happiest days of her marriage and family life. On August 21, 1983, however, Ninoy ended his stay in the United States and returned without his family to the Philippines, only to be assassinated on a staircase leading to the tarmac of the Manila International Airport, which was later renamed in his honor (see Assassination of Benigno Aquino, Jr.). Corazà ³n Aquino returned to the Philippines a few days later and led her husband’s funeral procession, in  which more than two million people joined the procession. Following her husband’s assassination in 1983, Aquino became active and visible in various demonstrations and protests held against the Marcos regime. She began to assume the mantle of leadership left by her husband Ninoy and started to become the symbolic figurehead of the anti-Marcos political opposition. In the last week of November 1985, Marcos surprised the nation by announcing on American television that he would hold a snap presidential election in February 1986, in order to dispel and remove doubts against his regime’s legitimacy and authority. Reluctant at first, Aquino was eventually prevailed upon to heed the people’s clamor, after one million signatures urging her to run for president were presented to her. Despite this, the erstwhile favorite opposite candidate, Laurel, did not immediately give way to his close friend’s widow. Laurel was only convinced to run as Aquino’s Vice President upon the urging of the influential Manila Cardinal Archbishop Jaime Sin. As a compromise, Aquino agreed to run under Laurel’s machinery, the United Nationalist Democratic Organization (UNIDO), then the country’s largest opposition party. With that, the Aquino-Laurel tandem was formally launched to challenge Marcos and finally put an end to his twenty-year martial rule. In the subsequent political developments and events, Marcos charged that Aquino was being supported by communists and agreed to share power with them once elected into power. A political novice, Aquino categorically denied Marcos’ charge and even stated that she would not appoint a single communist to her cabinet. Running on the offensive, the ailing Marcos also accused Aquino of playing â€Å"political football† with the United States with respect to the continued United States military presence in the Philippines at Clark Air Base and Subic Naval Base. Further, the male strongman derided Aquino’s womanhood, by saying that she was â€Å"just a woman† whose place was in the bedroom. In response to her opponent’s sexist remark, Aquino simply remarked that â€Å"may the better woman win in this election.† Marcos also attacked Aquino’s inexperience and warned the country that it would be a disaster if a woman like her with no previous political experience would be elected president; to which Aquino cleverly and sarcastically responded, admitting that she had â€Å"no experience in cheating, lying to the public, stealing government money, and killing political opponents.† The snap election called by Marcos which was held on February 7, 1986 was marred by massive electoral fraud, violence, intimidation, coercion and disenfranchisement of voters. Election Day proved to be bloody as one of Aquino’s staunchest allies Antique Governor Evelio Javier was brutally murdered, allegedly by one of Marcos’ supporters in his province. Further, during the counting and tallying of votes conducted by the Commission on Elections (COMELEC), 30 poll computer technicians walked out to dispute and contest the alleged election-rigging done in favor of Marcos. Despite this, the Batasang Pambansa, which was dominated by allies of the ruling party, declared President Marcos as the winner in the recently concluded snap presidential election on February 15, 1986. In protest to the declaration of the Philippine parliament, Aquino called for a rally dubbed â€Å"Tagumpay ng Bayan† (People’s Victory Rally) the following day, during which she claimed that she was the real winner in the snap election and urged Filipinos to boycott the products and services by companies controlled or owned by Marcos’ cronies. The rally held at the historic Rizal Park in Luneta, Manila drew a mammoth-sized crowd, which sent a strong signal that Filipinos were already growing tired of Marcos’ two decade-rule. Further, the dubious election results drew sharp reactions from both local quarters and foreign countries. The Catholic Bishops’ Conference of the Philippines issued a statement strongly criticizing the conduct of the election which was characterized by violence and fraud. The United States Senate condemned the election. Aquino rejected a power-sharing agreement proposed by the American diplomatPhilip Habib, who had been sent as an emissary by U.S. President Ronald Reagan to help defuse the tension. After weeks of tension following the disputed outcome of the snap election, disgruntled and reformist military officers, led by then Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and General Fidel V. Ramos, surprised the entire nation and the whole world when they announced their defection from President Marcos and their strong belief that Aquino was the real winner in the presidential election on February 22, 1986. Upon the urging and encouragement of the activist Cardinal Archbishop of Manila Jaime Sin, millions of Filipinos trooped to Camp Aguinaldo along Epifanio De los Santos Avenue (EDSA), where Enrile and Ramos have been holding operations, to give their moral support and prayers for the reformist soldiers. At that time, Aquino was meditating in a Carmelite convent in Cebu. Upon learning of the defection, Aquino called on  Filipinos to rally behind Minister Enrile and General Ramos. Later on, Aquino flew back to Manila in order to prepare to assume the presidency upon the ouster of Marcos. Finally, to the amazement and admiration of the entire world, after twenty years of martial rule, Ferdinand Marcos was driven out from power and Corazà ³n Aquino was formally and peacefully sworn in as the new president of a freed and liberated Philippines on February 25, 1986, a historic event which is now known and remembered as the 1986 EDSA People Power Revolution. In Presidency, the triumph of the peaceful People Power Revolution and the ascension of Corazà ³n Aquino into power signaled the end of authoritarian rule in the Philippines and the dawning of a new era for Filipinos. The relatively peaceful manner by which Aquino came into power drew international acclaim and admiration not only for her but for the Filipino people, as well. During the first months of Aquino’s presidency, the country experienced radical changes and sweeping democratic reforms. One of Aquino’s first moves was the creation of the Presidential Commission on Good Government (PCGG), which was tasked to go after the Marcos ill-gotten wealth. Aquino, being a revolutionary president by virtue of people power, abolished the 1973 â€Å"Marcos Constitution† and dissolved the Marcos allies-dominated Batasang Pambansa, despite the advice of her vice-president and only prime minister Salvador Laurel. She also immediately created a Constitutional Commission, which she directed for the drafting of a new constitution for the nation. Immediately after assuming the presidency, President Aquino issued Proclamation No. 3, which established a revolutionary government. She abolished the 1973 Constitution that was in force during martial law, and instead promulgated the provisional 1986 Freedom Constitution, pending the ratification of a new Constitution by the people. This allowed her to exercise both executive and legislative powers until the ratification of the new Philippine Constitution and the establishment of a new Congress in 1987. Aquino promulgated two landmark legal codes, namely, the Family Code of 1987, which reformed the civil law on family relations, and the Administrative Code of 1987, which reorganized the structure of the executive branch of government. Another landmark law that was enacted during her tenure was the 1991 Local  Government Code, which devolved national government powers to local government units (LGUs). The new Code enhanced the power of LGUs to enact local taxation measures and assured them of a share in the national revenue. Aquino closed down the Marcos-dominated Batasang Pambansa to prevent the new Marcos loyalist opposition from undermining her democratic reforms and reorganized the membership of the Supreme Court to restore its independence. In May 1986, the reorganized Supreme Court declared the Aquino government as â€Å"not merely a de facto government but in fact and law a de jure government†, whose legitimacy had been affirmed by the community of nations. This Supreme Court decision affirmed the status of Aquino as the rightful leader of the Philippines. To fast-track the restoration of a full constitutional government and the writing of a new charter, she appointed 48 members of the 1986 Constitutional Commission (â€Å"Con-Com†), led by retired activist Supreme Court Associate Justice Cecilia Muà ±oz-Palma. The Con-Com completed its final draft in October 1986. On February 2, 1987, the new Constitution of the Philippines, which put strong emphasis on civil liberties, human rights and social justice, was overwhelmingly approved by the Filipino people. As soon as she assumed the presidency of the Philippines, Aquino moved quickly to tackle the issue of the US$26 billion foreign debt incurred by her predecessor, which has badly tarnished the international credit standing and economic reputation of the country. After weighing all possible options such as choosing not to pay, Aquino eventually chose to honor all the debts that were previously incurred in order to clear the country’s image. Her decision proved to be unpopular but Aquino defended that it was the most practical move. It was crucial for the country at that time to regain the investors’ confidence in the Philippine economy. Since 1986, the Aquino administration has paid off $4 billion of the country’s outstanding debts to regain good international credit ratings and attract the attention of future markets. Nevertheless, the administration borrowed an additional $9 billion, increasing the national debt by $5 billion within six years time since the ouster of former President Ferdinand Marcos in 1986. Further, recognizing how crony capitalism zapped out the economy due to collusion between government and big business and adhering to the Catholic social principle of subsidiarity, President Aquino set out on a course of market liberalization agenda while at the same time emphasizing solidarity, people  empowerment and civic engagement to help alleviate poverty in the country. The Aquino administration also sought to bring back fiscal discipline in order as it aimed to trim down the government’s budget deficit that ballooned during Marcos’ term through privatization of bad government assets and deregulation of many vital industries. As president, Aquino sought out to dismantle the cartels, monopolies and oligopolies of important industries that were set up by Marcos cronies during the dark days of Martial Law, particularly in the sugar and coconut industries. By discarding these monopolies and allowing market-led prices and competition, small farmers and producers were given a fair chance to sell their produce and products at a more reasonable, competitive and profitable price. This, in a way, also helped a lot in improving the lot of farmers who are in dire need of increasing their personal income and earnings. It was also during Aquino’s time that vital economic laws such as the Built-Operate-Transfer Law, Foreign Investments Act and the Consumer Protection and Welfare Act were enacted. The economy posted a positive growth of 3.4% during her first year in office. But in the aftermath of the 1989 coup attempt by the rightist Reform the Armed Forces Movement, the Philippine economy remained stagnant. In her final year in office, inflation was raging at 17%, and unemployment was slightly over 10%, higher than the Marcos years. Overall, the economy under Aquino had an average growth of 3.8% from 1986 to 1992. Soon after taking office, Aquino declared that the presence of US military forces in the Philippines was an affront to national sovereignty. She ordered the United States military to vacate U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay and Clark Air Base. The US objected, pointing that they had leased the property and the leases were still in effect. Also, thousands of Filipinos worked at these military facilities and they would lose their jobs and the Filipino economy would suffer if the US Military moved out. The US stated that the facilities at Subic Bay were unequaled anywhere in Southeast Asia and a US pull out could make all of that region of the world vulnerable to an incursion by the Soviet Union or by a resurgent Japan. She refused to back down and insisted that the USA get out. The matter was still being debated when Mount Pinatubo erupted in June 1991, covering the entire area with volcanic ash. The destruction to the bases was so severe that the US decided that it would best to pull out after all, so the bases were closed and the United States  departed. President Aquino envisioned agrarian and land reform as the centerpiece of her administration’s social legislative agenda. However, her family background and social class as a privileged daughter of a wealthy and landed clan became a lightning rod of criticisms against her land reform agenda. On February 22, 1987, three weeks after the resounding ratification of the 1987 Constitution, agrarian workers and farmers marched to the historic Mendiola Street near the Malacaà ±an Palace to demand genuine land reform from Aquino’s administration. However, the march turned violent when Marine forces fired at farmers who tried to go beyond the designated demarcation line set by the police. As a result, 12 farmers were killed and 19 were injured in this incident now known as the Mendiola Massacre. This incident led some prominent members of the Aquino Cabinet to resign their government posts. In response to calls for agrarian reform, President Aquino issued Presidential Proclamation 131 and Executive Order 229 on July 22, 1987, which outlined her land reform program, which included sugar lands. In 1988, with the backing of Aquino, the new Congress of the Philippines passed Republic Act No. 6657, more popularly known as the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law.† The law paved the way for the redistribution of agricultural lands to tenant-farmers from landowners, who were paid in exchange by the government through just compensation but were also allowed to retain not more than five hectares of land. However, corporate landowners were also allowed under the law to â€Å"voluntarily divest a proportion of their capital stock, equity or participation in favor of their workers or other qualified beneficiaries†, in lieu of turning over their land to the government for redistribution. Despite the flaws in the law, the Supreme Court upheld its constitutionality in 1989, declaring that the implementation of the comprehensive agrarian reform program provided by the said law, was â€Å"a revolutionary kind of expropriation.† Despite the implementation of CARP, Aquino was not spared from the controversies that eventually centered on Hacienda Luisita, a 6,453-hectare estate located in the Province of Tarlac, which she, together with her siblings inherited from her father Jose Cojuangco (Don Pepe) Critics argued that Aquino bowed to pressure from relatives by allowing stock redistribution under Executive Order 229. Canadian International Prize for Freedom, International Democracy Award from the International Association of Political Consultants on 1986. Prize For Freedom Award from Liberal International on 1987. In 1993 she achieved the Special Peace Award from the Aurora Aragon Quezon Peace Awards Foundation and Concerned Women of the Philippines. She also achieved Path to Peace Award on 1995. J. Willia Fullbright Prize for International Understanding from the U.S Department of State. Also Ramon Magsaysay Award for International Understanding and Pearl S. Buck on 1998. In 1999, she achieved One of Time Magazine’s 20 Most Influential Asians of the 20th Century. World Citizenship Award on 2001. In 2005, she also achieved the David Rockefeller Bridging Leadership Awards and One of the World’s Elite Women Who Make a Difference by the International Women’s Forum Hall of Fame. One of Time Magazine’s 65 Asian Heroes on 2006. One of Different View’s 15 Champions of World Democracy on 2008. Aquino also achieved the EWC Asia Pacific Community Building Award, Women’s International Center International Leadership Living Legacy Award, Martin Luther King, Jr. Nonviolent Peace Prize, and United Nations Development Fund for Women Noel Foundation Life Award.

Bentley starts Essay

Question 1: Bill visits a local car auction and is immediately attracted to a red car labeled ‘Ferrari 1979’ which he purchases from peter. Peter is not a car expert but he has borrowed a book from the library and identified the car as a 1979 model. Bill also sees a classic Bentley which is owned by James, a qualified car mechanic. James informs Bill that the Bentley is operating perfectly on the way to the auction. Bill wanders off to look at another car and in his absence, the engine of the Bentley starts emitting smelly black smoke. However, by the time Bill returns, the smoke has temporarily cleared and he pays James the full price for the car. Subsequently, Bill discovers that the Ferrari is a fake but he crashes it while showing off to his girlfriend. It is a total write of further. He discovers that the engine in the Bentley is faulty. His mechanic manages to undertake some minor repairs to keep the engine running temporarily but warns Bill that in the long run he will need a new engine. Advice Bill. Question 2: Gethin runs a hotel at a popular seaside resort. He decides to expand his hotel by adding an extension but his accountant warns him that it will only be economical if built in time for the summer season. His contract with Bob, a local builder, contains the following conditions: 1) The extension will be built by 1 April 30 to be payable for each day’s delay thereafter. 2) The extension must be built using local materials as specified in Gethin’s attached list of specifications. 3. The floor must be fitted by a specialist flooring contractor to be nominated by Gethin. On April 30, the extension is still attractive. He is extremely annoyed to find out that the floor had not been fitted by Unique Floor Ltd, the firm he nominated and there are now large cracks in its surface. He is distressed by the whole experience and in fit of anger, dismisses Bob and hires Jack to complete the work. Jack, seizing the opportunity charges Gethin with a double rate for the work. Bob and Jack are now demanding payment form Gethin . Advise Gethin Advice 1: As an initial move, Bill should approach James as soon as possible and inform him about the condition of the Bentley. As a merchandiser, it is James responsibility to address Bill’s query regarding the car and help him resolve the problem. In addition, James also has the obligation to provide a concrete description of the products that he is offering. He has to be honest in his service and he should not lie to customers for the sake of making more money or else he might suffer from consequences after. Even if the mechanic has done temporary repairs on the Bentley, the possibility of acquiring new engine and spending additional cost in the long run makes the situation harder for Bill. It is also not reasonable to say that James has no responsibilities on the car anymore since it is already bought because of the car has been damage even before it is bought. According to the law of consumer rights, the merchandiser has the obligation to sell products that are described correctly including the damages that the products may have. The consumer also has the right to return a product if the consumer discovered any failure right after the product’s purchase (ANL 2009). Applying to Bill’s case, James lied to Bill about the condition of the car prior to purchase so James has right to return the car and ask for reimbursement if ever the car’s engine is not changed. On the other hand, the case of the Ferrari is different. Bill should have informed Peter about the situation earlier so that the issue has been resolved. As a customer, Bill has the right to return the car but since the car has been damaged because of his fault, his right has been void (ANL 2009). It is true that Peter has lied and Bill can still pursue to take legal actions against him. However, the possibility of any reimbursement is low due to Bill’s mistake of damaging the car due to his irresponsible actions. Through a legal process, he can still acquire an amount of money from Peter as a reimbursement but it will not be the same amount that he paid due to the damages on the car that he also has to pay. Advice 2: Gethin can solve by having a negotiation with Jack about the rate of work. Even though Jack is selected to finish the work, it is his ethical responsibility to avoid taking too much advantage of the situation. As a professional, Jack has a duty to render service for the benefit of his and his client’s party. He should price the service based on its regular price and not based on other unreasonable reasons (Thomson Reuters 2009). Through a business negotiation, Gethin should explain the situation to Jack and convince him to agree with his proposed rate. Both of them should present their oown proposal of price and be able to defend it. Gethin should explain that since it is just a completion work, the rate should not be very high. He should also identify the conditions and present it clearly so that any misunderstanding can be avoided. However, if Jack still did not agree, then the best way that Gethin can do is to look for other company that can finish the work and agree with his terms. Since it will be just a completion work, other companies will surely accept the project given that Gethin offers a reasonable rate. Business will still be business and as an entrepreneur, Gethin should know his limitations in terms of offering rates so that he will not end up spending a huge amount of money for the project. On the other hand, Gethin can sue Bob for not complying with the contract. The fact that Bob agreed on the contract gave him an obligation to follow it and be subjected to rules. In any business, contracts are considered as legal documents and are subjected to agreement between two parties. Anyone who disobeys can be sued and will be subjected to penalties depending on the case (Thomson Reuters 2009). Bob, as a contractor, should know about the consequences of not complying with the contract. If Bob is proven to guilty, then he will be liable to pay a certain amount to Gethin to cover the damages that he made and he might also lose his work license. References: Thomson Reuters. 2009. Contract and the Law. Available at http://smallbusiness. findlaw. com/business-forms-contracts/business-forms-contracts-overview-law. html Associated Newspapers Limited (ANL). 2009. Consumer Rights. ThisIsMoney. co. uk. Available at http://www. thisismoney. co. uk/help-and-advice/advice-banks/article. html? in_advicepage_id=130&in_article_id=395991&in_page_id=90

Kierkegaardian Journeys To Selfhood Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Kierkegaardian Journeys To Selfhood - Essay Example However, one who is unable to make a choice either way, for such a person the self is not created. Hence, a choice has to be made and this is the way that the self is created. The aesthetic’s form of choice leaves the individual self-less because he has been lured by passions and lust. His choice is based on the emotions which rule him for that small period of time. He is overpowered by those emotions of lust and passions and unable to relieve himself from them. Nobody can understand your actions and thoughts; this does not even attract pity from others. They merely pray that wise sense may prevail upon you someday because every revelation that you make is an illusion. They become self-less because they have deceived their own self throughout the life. This is why Kierkegaard says such choice leaves the individual self-less. In the ethical stage the virtues are dominant and one evaluates the dilemma and the problem based on truth, honesty and righteousness. In such a situation, the individual is not confronted with a choice. He knows what is to be done. His personality itself is immersed in the choice that he is not different from the choice. The choice and he are indivisible; there is no dualism. Suppose one has to make a choice about a life problem. If he delays the decision, he is able to understand the situation better. He delays not because is unable to make a choice but to understand the alternatives. When one believes in the inner self, there is no time for though-experiments. A person would always see where the alternatives would lead him to; he would evaluate the shortest path to accomplish his goals or reach his destination. Thus, the choice cannot be wrong because he is evaluating the alternatives with righteousness. The choice has to be made with tone of seriousness. This is because, Kierkeg aard says, the next moment one may not have the power to choose. Hence even if the personality postpones the choice, the choice is made

The Constraint of Global Peace and Security by Military Policies durin Assignment

The Constraint of Global Peace and Security by Military Policies during the Cold War - Assignment Example No country is immune from such situation in the future that can lead to a new round of confrontation and arms race, which in turn can cause an irreparable harm to society and to the world at large. It is a common knowledge that war, nuclear weapon, and its tests are destructive in the international conflict solution. However, no matter what, the idea of superiority and supremacy instinctively makes people fighting and trying to win. During the Cold War, our world faced with such situation, when two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union put at stake the further existing of the whole humanity. In the current paper, based on the facts from the analyzed literature, we will try to present objectively the course of a war, understand the reasons that shaped the situation, and draw the appropriate conclusions. In this respect, the main question of the current paper is how the parties of the conflict finally managed to restrain the military tension during the Cold War. After the fall of the Third Reich, there was no power in Europe that was able to oppose the Soviet Union. Therefore, in many Western European countries increased the influence of the left parties (the Labor Party won the elections in Great Britain in 1945) and the positions of the Communists strengthened. The USSR and the USA were the most powerful and influential countries economically, as well as in terms of military power. These countries were divided by the ideological contradiction, specifical communism against capitalism. The latter led to the obvious hostility in the international relations. The internal situation in these countries was characterized by the active impersonating and search of the enemy. The dissidence was also recognized as a form of subversive activity. Such atmosphere was quite a common situation since it was a characterizing feature of the totalitarian regime... In the United States, such internal tension gave birth to McCarthyism, the persecution of the cit izens, who were suspected in anti-American activities (Perry, Chase, Jacob, Jacob and Von Laue, 2012).     

Law in Practice UK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Law in Practice UK - Essay Example Mr. David Balls, aged 41, has mentioned that he is married to Edwina Balls, 32 years of age. This couple has been married for a total of 8 years. On Valentine’s Day of 2011 (February 14th, to be exact), Edwina did not return home. A man named Harry Williams phoned Mr. Balls and informed him that he and Edwina had been having an affair for the past three months, and, in fact, she was asleep in his bed right now. David found out where Mr. Williams was calling from and he rushed out of his home to go to Harry’s house to confront him. David was driving from his home along Romford road and through the traffic lights (East) at Manor Park junction towards Ilford where Harry lives. At that moment, another driver came from the right and smashed into the driver’s side (offside) of his car. The police and the ambulance were alerted to the scene. David sustained bad bruising to his right leg but otherwise was unhurt. The other driver, however, had been thrown through her windscreen onto her own bonnet, and then onto the ground. The other driver—Katherine Buckingham, age 31 years old—sustained whiplash, a broken nose, concussion, and a badly bruised shoulder. Katherine also sustained cuts on her face and arms from the windscreen. Police officers told David that Katherine had not been wearing a seatbelt. Both drivers were breathalysed but neither was over the alcohol limit for driving. Everyone owes a duty of care to those affected by his or her actions and is liable in law for his or her negligence. Tort is the law that relates to civil wrongs, and in particular the laws relating to negligence. Personal injury is a particular form of negligence which can be brought to the courts on the part of the plaintiff. Mr. Balls does have a case for suing Ms. Buckingham, because personal injury consists of doing damage to s omeone’s person. However, Katherine may have a case when it comes to Mr. Balls running into her on the road, since what he did could be considered driving recklessly in a fit of passion—similar to how second-degree murder is not premeditated but is a crime of passion. Katherine might not be liable for David’s wrongdoing here, although she could be given a fine for not having worn her seatbelt. Here, the law of tort, negligence, and duty of care will be sufficiently explained. II. Law of Tort ‘Tort’ is the French word for a wrong. Torts are civil wrongs. Civil wrongs can be contrasted to criminal acts although one action might result in a potential liability for two claims, one civil and one criminal. If D runs into P on the road, D is liable to be prosecuted for civil sanctions such as fines, community penalties or imprisonment, which might be applied by the civil courts. But P can also sue D in the civil courts for any damages for the injury and lo ss that has been suffered. Negligence is a tort. III. Negligence, Liability for Negligence, and Defences Against Negligence The case of â€Å"Donoghue –v- Stephenson† (2011), set out the basic principles of negligence in English law (pp. 1). The case concerned food poisoning suffered by Mrs Donoghue whose bottled ginger beer was contaminated with the remains of a decomposed snail. As Mrs Donoghue didn’t buy the ginger beer (her friend did) she had no action in contract law (so she wasn’t a party to that contract). The case decided that, in English Law there must be and is a general conception of relations giving rise to a duty of care. The liability for negligence is based upon a general public sentiment of wrongdoing for which the offender pays. The case created the concept of negligence as an action in civil law allowing injured parties to sue wrongdoers for their loss and damage. To find a defendant liable for

RECONSTRUCTION Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

RECONSTRUCTION - Essay Example ecause the radical Republicans did not agree with President Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson on softer terms of bringing back the South to the Union. The Liberal Republicans were of the opinion that those whites who had not held onto the ideologies of the union should not have had their rights restored. It was still during the civil war that President Abraham Lincoln made plans to reconstruct the Union. The president first made sure that the union armies conquered the large sections of Tennessee and that this state was under the control of the national government. After this is when he moved to put his plan into action. From his second inaugural address, it was clear that Abraham Lincoln thought it better to approach the matter soberly and not punish the south. His plan focused on all including the South that had born the battle. In 1863, Abraham Lincoln appointed Andrew Johnson to govern the state of Tennessee to serve as a model state for the south. The president then asked the voters of Tennessee to at least have 10% of them taking an oath to uphold the constitution. When this oath was taken, all persons save for the highest officers in the confederate army would be pardoned for their contribution to the war. The rights of the citizens would also be restored except for the slaves. The president also required that the states that would be reconstructed to ratify the Thirteenth Amendment. This amendment abolished slavery. This, the president called it the ‘new birth of freedom.’ He was however worried that this would not be received well by the whites in the south. He was of the opinion that, just like the white people, the black people were American citizens (Murrin 463) Due to the differences in ideology between Lincoln and the congress, in July 1864, there was the first direct clash. The congress passed the Wade-Davis bill and adjourned shortly after passing the bill. For Lincoln to continue with his reconstruction plan, he vetoed it by failing to

S6W4PAPER1 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

S6W4PAPER1 - Research Paper Example This unilateral French military intervention, though not directly under instructions of the UN Security Council, has been seen as a reprieve not only by the Malians but a majority of global nations. However, it is worth noting that this foreign military intervention had little to do with the ethnic grievances of the Tuaregs. Instead, there are a number of underlying factors, forces and groups that orchestrated the intervention. In this research paper, I seek to find out the sources of the recent military intervention in Mali. Special attention is given to the main issues of the conflict that include conflict management and security. To begin with, one major reason for global military intervention is linked to the vulnerability of the transitional Malian government. After the coup, the government in place had the duty to oversee the developments of the country in efforts to regain normalcy. Unfortunately, the civilian-led government based at the capital city, Bamako, has been made ineffective by internal conflicts and military interference. In addition, corruption that has been deep-rooted in most of the state institution has weakened the structures in place to ensure that the government is running efficiently and effectively. Whereas all this was taking place, the simmering ethnic battles in the northern Mali saw over 350,000 people displaced resulting in serious human and political crises. The people who were leading the rebellions were mostly the Tuaregs who were returning back to their country after the revolution against Muammar Gaddafi in Libya. Most of them were serving in the Gaddafi army and as such car ried alongside with them an assortment of arms. Also, since they had just returned from a revolutionary war in Libya, these returnees were still motivated by their combative instincts to propagate the same war in Mali3. The Malian government, as well as the

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 179

Assignment Example The topic of discussion is poverty. Poverty refers to condition where an individual is deficient of some material possession (Espejo, 2012). It is a situation where individuals cannot meet basic needs, that is, food, shelter and clothing. In general poverty is comprised of two types: Absolute poverty-is where individuals are unable to raise the bare minimum essential for provision of his basic needs in a particular area (Espejo, 2012). It attempts to measure individual’s ability to afford living in a particular area. Those persons who cannot raise the bare minimum required to provide basic needs in a specific region are considered to be living in absolute poverty. Context of the problem is why cutting poverty is good for a country. Millions of adults and children in most countries around the world live in extreme poverty. They face economic hardship. Cutting on overall rate of poverty is thereby a public good that will come as a benefit to citizens of a country at all income level. Reducing nation’s poverty level will save a country economy billion dollars as it saves the government limited resources that would be channeled to poverty related issues such as health care costs and criminal-justice expenditures (Sachs, 2005). The resources saved could be used to invest in areas that promote economic growth. Multinational companies-these companies have a role of addressing pressing social problems such as absolute poverty in host countries. Multinational corporations play a big role in eradicating poverty by providing employment to citizens, participating in community development projects and industrial training programmers to the youths. External development partners –majorly comprise of World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF).These institutions work to connect extensively their lending operations to the country strategies and measures for cutting poverty.IMF and World Bank also offer policy advice

Consumer Behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 5

Consumer Behaviour - Essay Example reason and feel when they are faced with the different alternatives of products and how they get influenced by their environments (HAWKNIS, MOTHERSBAUGH & MOOKERJEE 2011, pg31). Other benefits that accrue from this study to organizations would include; the understanding of the consumers’ behaviors relating to how they make decisions while in the market for what they need, and also in coming up with the appropriate motivation and decision strategies relating to products they offer their customers. Product use is of utmost importance to the marketers as it influences a lot of the marketing decisions most of which involves improving and increasing its usage and consumption (KARDES, CRONLEY & CLINE 2011, pg55). In consideration to this target market, most organizations would tend to align themselves to offering the courses that would be attractive to the students. These students who achieve the ATAR score of 70% or above, according to the Australian education system are eligible for University admission. The ATAR system has been used to rank the student’s scores relative to that of the other students taking into account the total number of student who partake the WACE examination in any year and the number of those students who leave school in their final year. Some of the various important factors that have influenced the consumer behaviors over time can be grouped into the following categories: i) The cultural factors; of essence includes the consumers’ subcultures, their buying behaviors and social classes. The marketers dealing with this target market should be able to go out of their way and determine their different buying cultures, and what informs their decisions. This would help them in their market segmentation strategies so that the services they offer are tailored to ensure that these different groups of the students who attain these positions are served accordingly. This would also be vital in shaping the consumer’s perceptions, habits and the

The Role of Communication Skills in Planning a Group Project Essay - 9

The Role of Communication Skills in Planning a Group Project - Essay Example Presentations actually are a form of communication that involve, in practice, use of certain literature about the subject matter, presenter, mode of presentation and an effective way of communication. On the audience side, the targeted individuals are referred to as people of concern, importance or potentials of any kind. This two-pronged structure of a presentation environment is very important as far the concept of planning for a presentation is concerned (Griffith University, 2007). The planning thus involves the crux and quintessence of the presentation that comes out to be the face of what has been worked upon. This working involves a comprehensive methodology and practices so that an effective result may be achieved. This resultant is actually the material for the presentation. This essay is about an experience that has been attained during planning for a presentation. This experience is of course based on what actually happens to the presenter planning for this type of communication. It is not different from experiences of a lot of people that plan for public speaking. In fact, this domain of public speaking demands a lot more insight from the presenter into a topic or the subject matter that is being presented. The retrospective analysis of the presenter always notifies to him a self-correcting conclusion that planning is actually the first step towards presentation making. Planning for presentation involves background knowledge, though thin, yet broad and readily available. Individual planning is less preferred for group planning. This is very important to have a consultancy and discussion environment during this stage.  

International Human Recourse Management Essay Example for Free

International Human Recourse Management Essay Undertake research to examine current trends and emerging issues within the field of International Human Resource Management (IHRM). What are some contrasting and recent frameworks, models and perspectives applied within the field of IHRM? The meaning of International Human Resource Management (IHRM) becomes more and more important in the last few years. The first time the term IHRM was used was in 1990, around the same time period ‘globalisation’ began. Initially the main function of IHRM was the organisation and management of expatriates (Festing, et al. , 2013, p. 161). In 2012 the foreign affiliates of Multinational Enterprises (MNEs) of the United Nations had reached 69 million workers (Dowling, et al., 2013, p. viii). Due to this fact it becomes clear the tremendous challenge IHRM faces in our time. Furthermore the world is getting more uniform and standardised because of the globalisation. With the impact of technical, commercial and cultural development, companies must rise to new challenges and a different way of thinking (Durham Kellner, 2006, p. 659). If we put all the different aspects together we can define IHRM as examining the HRM issues, problems, strategies, policies and practices which firms pursue in relation to the internationalisation of their business (Brewster, et al., 2011, p. 10). On the basis of current research, this essay will investigate trends and emerging issues in the field of IHRM. In the first wide field of global assignments and careers there have been changes in recent years due to the development of technology and worldwide integration. As organisations are increasingly affected by the forces of globalisation and the competition between the different companies, the prerequisites for employees are increasing as well. Due to these facts, the work life balance (WLB) has been subject to increasing investigation and has led to a significant emerging issue for all people especially international business travellers (Festing, et al., 2013). As a consequence,  WLB is receiving attention in the IHRM field. WLB consists of two different concepts: achievement and enjoyment. You cannot get the full value from life if you are only concentrated on one concept (WorkLifeBalance, 2014). One’s daily focus on achievement and enjoyment is based in all four life quadrants: work, family, friends and self WLB. WLB is already a significant topic for HRM, however it is ev en more important for frequent travellers. Due to this fact, in the field of IHRM, work life balance has been  investigated by Iris Kollinger-Santer and Iris C. Fischlmayr (2013). They focused on the difference between female and male international travellers and their WLB, finding that the different stressors related to travelling have a variable intensity according to gender. For instance, the lack of time for social contact or leisure activities is a stronger stress factor for women than for men. The family situation in particular is an important influence on each gender, with women missing their family more than men. Coping strategies also vary according to gender (Kollinger-Santer Fischlmayr). Beauregard and Henry (2009) bring different concepts to the issue of WLB. These authors try to make a link between work life balance practices and organisational performance. Therefore they discuss the differing importance of factors according to national context, job level, and managerial support and come to the conclusion that WLB practices are often combined with high organisational performance (Beauregards Henry). Another emerging challenge beside WLB is the different types of global assignments. In recent years, working abroad as an expatriate to get international experience and to develop global skills was considered an important skill. Organisations openly promoted this process. They wanted to give their employees work experience and transcend national boundaries. However, employees are often unwilling to work abroad or those who are  willing to work abroad are leaving their international assignments early or quitting their organisations once they repatriate because of the positive effects, such as promotions and salary advancement. Another aspect that favours this situation is to compensate for the out-of-sight, out-ofmind problem that occurs when employees are physically away from their home country’s organisation (Shaffer, et al.). Due to this fact a new emerging issue is taking place within IHRM. Organisations are looking for global work alternatives for their employees to gain global work experience without losing the employee afterwards. Besides the well-known kinds of work experience, such as corporate expatriation or self-initiated expatriation, some new ways to achieve global work experience are now offered to employees. Shaffer et al. (2012) sums up the existing ways to achieve international work experience and subdivided them along the three dimensions; physical mobility, cognitive flexibility, and nonwork disruptions. Based on this knowledge, the authors interpret the major findings from their review and develop a taxonomy of these experiences as a theoretical framework for analysing past studies. They point out that all of the global work  experiences were associated with different personal and nonwork demands especially, stress and family issues. However, Shaffer et al. claim that the specific stress factor varied by the different types of global work experience. Finally, they conclude that the real challenge is not the different types of global work, but is the combination of physically moving to a foreign country with the family and learning to adapt to a new culture that creates unique family demands associated with expatriate assignments (Shaffer, et al.). In addition to the new methods to get global work experience, Vaiman and Haslberger (2013) focus on the importance of  self-initiated expatriations and take a closer look at foreign executives in local organisations (FELOs). A FELO is a rare international crosscultural management phenomenon. To find the differences between an expatriate assignment and a FELO, one must take a deeper look at the subsidiaries of multinational organisations (FELO Research, 2014). Vaiman and Haslberger derive four different types of FELOs and various types of localised FELOs as well as typologies and organisation forms. Finally they examine global careers outside of traditional, company-backed expatriate assignments, and highlight the fact that there is a rising number of foreign executives appointed in recent years (Vaiman Haslberger). Global talent management (GTM) is a rapidly growing field within IHRM. GTM includes the connection between the importance of talent management and success in global business. In general the aim of talent management is the identification of well qualified employees in a global context and placing those people in key positions where they have the potential to impact the competitive advantage of the organisation (Scullion Collings, 2011, pp. 3-4). GTM is still an emerging field with debates regarding many aspects of its relevance IHRM (Festing, et al., 2013). For instance, Schuler et al. (2012) focus on various challenges in the area of GTM like dealing with talent shortages, talent surpluses, locating and relocating talent, and compensation levels of talent. They present strategic opportunities and their implications for organisations in regards to these challenges, concluding that organisational need must be linked to the direction of organisational strategy and talent strategy in particular (Schuler, et al.). Clearly there is a wide area of unspecified topics in the field of GTM. In countries such as Germany, China or India, research on this subject is particularly limited, thus there has been much debate over the continuing significance of talent management in the recent years. There are two different views of the importance and the impact of talent  management (Festing, et al., 2013) According to Walk et al. (2013), talent is the most consistent and frequent factor in business success within a global context. For this reason, organisations compete across borders to get the most talented employees. The authors discovered that from the standpoint of an organisation, cross-cultural students are the most valuable, thus they tend to recruit their future employees from this group. Walk et al. also assess work expectations across diverse cultural backgrounds and concluded that differences in expectation are less between Chinese, Indian, and German students than one might suspect (Cf. Walk, et al.).  Ewerlin’s (2013) research on GTM focusses on the influence of talent management program’s attractiveness on an employer. Due to the fact that talented individuals are rare, organisations need to take care that they can position themselves as attractive employers in order to secure the best employees. Talented employees are able to pick and choose between several attractive job offers, therefore they are looking for an additional factors such as good talent management programs. Ewerlin could not confirm that there is a direct relationship between employer attractiveness and their GTM program, however she indicates that these programs should be designed for culturally differences and that personality also plays an important role in shaping the needs of individual employees (Ewerlin). If you compare the current trends and emerging issues of IHRM to the development of other departments within an organisation, especially due to the influence of other areas, there is constant change in IHRM. Additionally to the constant changes IHRM have made, there are a lot of increasing factors to the global market. Several aspects are crucial in the two huge fields of global assignments and careers and global work experience. In the first field there are different facts like work life balance and global work experience. The second area includes the current topics such as GTM programs and the connection to the attractiveness to an employer. Finally there are a lot of new areas of investigation that need to be explored and due to the fact of technical progress and the increasing globalisation it is important  to deal with new challenges in order to stay competitive in the international market. Reference List: Beauregards, T. A. Henry, L. C., 2009. Making the link betwen work-life balance practices and organizational performance. Human resource management review, September, pp. 9-22. Brewster, C., Sparrow, P., Vernon, G. Houldsworth, E., 2011. International Human Resource Management, London: CIPD House. BusinessDictionary.com, 2014. BusinessDictionary.com. [Online] Available at: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/expatriate.html Dowling, P. J., Festing, M. Engle, A. D., 2013. International human resource management, 6th Edition. Hampshire: Cengage Learning. Durham, M. G. Kellner, D. M., 2006. media and cultural studies. Carlton: Blackwell. Ewerlin, D., 2013. The influence of global talent management on employer attractiveness: An experimental study. German Journal of Research in Human Resource Management, pp. 279304. FELO Research, 2014. feloreseach. [Online] Available at: http://feloresearch.info/ Festing, M. et al., 2013. Current issues in International HRM: Alternative forms of assignments, careers and talent management in a global context. German Journal of Research in Human Resource Management, pp. 161-166. Kollinger-Santer, I. Fischlmayr, I. C., 2013. Work life balance up in the air Does gender make a difference between female and male internation business travelers. German Journal of Research in Human Resource Management, 09, pp. 195-223. Schuler, R. S., Jackson, S. E. Tarique, I., 2012. Global talent management and global talent challenges: strategic opportunities for IHRM, New York: Journal of World Business. Scullion, H. Collings, D. G., 2011. Global Talent Management. New York: Routledge. Shaffer, M. A., Kraimer, M. L., Chen, Y.-P. Bolino, M. C., 2012. Choices, Challenges, and Career Consequences of Global Work Experiences: A Review and Future Agenda. Journal of Management, pp. 1281-1327. Vaiman, V. Haslberger, A., 2013. Talent Manamgent of Self-Initaited Expatriates, Hampshire: PALGRAVE MACMILLAN. Walk, M., Schinnenburg, H. Handy, F., 2013. What do talens want? Work expectations in India, China, and Germany. German Journal of Research in Human Resource Management, pp. 251-278. WorkLifeBalance, 2014. WorkLifeBalance. [Online] Available at: http://www.worklifebalance.com/

Imaging Techniques in Medical Science

Imaging Techniques in Medical Science Electrodiagnostics Electrodiagnosis is the field of study that utilizes the science of electrophysiology. Specifically, electrodiagnostics study the human neurophysiology through the utilization of electrical technology. Neurodiagnostics, evoked potentials and electromyography are aspects of electro diagnosis. Electromyography was the first electrodiagnostic examination to be developed. The procedure involves the placement of needles to several muscles to record various stages of muscle activity, minimal contraction, maximal activity and even rest. A normal muscle is electrically silent when at rest. Spontaneous depolarization of individual muscle fibers results from damaged muscle tissue. The mentioned alterations can be detected through the needle examination portion of electrodiagnostic examination. [122] No special preparation is generally necessary. Avoid using any lotions or creams on the day of the examination. Temperature could affect the result of the test hence if the temperature is cold; the patient should wait in a warm room for a while before the test is conducted. One concern with electromyographic testing is that needles are utilized and it could be painful. However, the new computerized technology permits the usage of needles that can records so that small insertion of it feels lesser painful than the insertion of a normal size needle. Needles with small gauge can be used, because nothing is aspirated or injected. A troublesome trend is the performance of nonphysician health care personnel in electromyographic testing. Interpretation of electromyograms and performance of electromyography needs enough technical skill and capability to assimilate physician’s understanding. [121] In a study conducted by Rathinaraj and colleagues regarding the efficacy of spinal segmental stabilization exercise program and the efficiency to improve the muscular activity and pain reduction which is assessed through electromyography because limited studies are conducted using electromyography as an assessment parameter of muscular activity. Their study show ed that exercise play a vital role in alleviating low back pain particularly in the mechanical back pain brought by spinal instability, which needs spinal segmental stabilization exercise program. Positive progress in muscular activity and pain reduction proves the exercise program. History of low back pain is associated with higher baseline muscle activation and that electromyography responses are modulated from this activated state, rather than showing acute burst activity from inactive state, perhaps to prevent trunk displacements. Nerve conduction studies are essential part of the complete electrodiagnostic examination. [123] In a nerve conduction studies, the contraction is caused by the electrical charge distributed to the nerves in the periphery. An electrode capable of recording is posited on a muscle innervated by the specific nerve, and information about impulse can be recorded including its latency. Latency is the time required for an impulse to travel from stimulus to the recording. Nerve conduction velocity and the distanced traveled can also be computed. The said measures are important gauge of damage to the nerve which specifically tests the integrity of the myelin sheath of the nerves. The nerve conduction studies and needle examination are key components of a complete electromyographic examination. The amplitude of the contraction of the muscle can be compared signal’s initial size thus providing information regarding the number of functional neurons that consists the nerve. Nerve conduction study is also referred as nerve conduction velocity test. During this procedure, two electrodes will be attached to the surface of the skin. One electrode will stimulate the nerve while the other one will record it. The speed of nerve conduction studies is associated to the degree of myelination and diameter of the nerve. A nerve functioning normally transmits a stronger and faster impulse than an altered nerve. It is like an electric wire with plastic or rubber insulation around it. Generally the range of normal conduction velocity is 50 to 60 meters per second. However, the normal conduction velocity may be different from one nerve to another and one individual to another. Nerve conduction velocity test is commonly conducted along with electromyography. A condition that may be examined with nerve conduction studies includes Carpal tunnel syndrome, Guillain-Barre Syndrome, Charcot-Mari-Tooth syndrome, herniated disc, neuropathy, polyneuropathy, sciatic nerve problem s and peripheral nerve injuries. Nerve conduction study techniques specifically include motor nerve conduction studies and sensory nerve conduction studies. Sensory nerve conduction studies are normal when focal sensory loss is due to nerve root damage for the nerve roots are proximal to the nerve bodies in the dorsal ganglia. [33] Evoked potentials or evoked responses, measures the electrophysiologic responses of the nervous system to different stimuli. Theoretically, almost any sensory modality can be tested, however in clinical practice only few are used in routine basis. [208] Evoked potentials demonstrate abnormal sensory function when the neurologic test results do not reveal abnormalities. It reveals clinically unsuspected pathology when demyelinating disease is suspected. It determines the anatomic distribution of a disease process and it objectively monitors the condition whether the patient is progressing or not. [125] Visual evoked potential examines the function of the visual pathway beginning from the retina going to the occipital cortex. It specifically measures the capacity of the visual pathways to conduct from the optic nerve, to theoptic chiasm and optic radiations going to the occipital cortex. Brainstem auditory evoked potentials measure the function of the auditory nerve and auditory pathways in the brainstem. [124] Somatosensory evoked potential is a diagnostic test to assess the speed of impulse conduction across the spinal cord. The said methodology is consists of using electrical stimulus in the nerves of arms and legs measuring the impulse generated by different points in the body. Electrodiagnostics is utilized to examine lumbosacral radiculopathy potentially underlying low back pain. The examinations serve as an extension of the physical examination and clinical history furthermore it complements the neuroimaging studies. Among the common low back pathologies amenable to electrodiagnostic studies include spinal stenosis and lumbosacral disc herniation. The electrodiagnostics can help in the decision making processes when considering surgical management. [126] Electrodiagnostic studies are essential part of the diagnostic evaluation when the physical examination or history suggests that neural structures may contribute as symptom generators. Lumbosacral radiculopathies, peripheral nerve injuries and plexopathies are of primary concern when examining patients having low back pain. The study assists in quantifying neurophysiologic injuries and alterations using the said techniques. Bone Scan A bone scan shows the images of metabolic activity of the skeleton. Conventionally, it is accomplished by imaging radionuclide whose physiology closely resembles a metabolic activity within the bone. Nuclear scintigraphy of the bone generally uses the radionuclides fluoride-18 (F-18) or technetium-99m (Tc-99m). Tc-99m is commonly attached to medronic acid (Tc-99m MDP) and F-18 incorporated into sodium fluoride (F-18 NaF). The molecules are injected intravenously while a nuclear camera that contains salt crystal captures the decay of photons from radioisotope. This is attained through the process of fluorescence or scintillation that occurs when the photon released by the radionuclide hits the salt crystals within the nuclear camera. The scintillations are converted to images for interpretation by nuclear medicine specialist. [127] A bone scan is used utilized to: [143] Diagnose a bone tumor or neoplasms Ascertain if a cancer already metastasizes to the bones. The common cancers that could spread to the bones include breast, lung, prostate, thyroid, and kidney. Diagnose a fracture, especially if it cannot be seen on a plain x-ray Rule-out osteomyelitis or bone infection Determine or diagnose the etiology of bone pain, when no other cause has been recognized Assess metabolic disorders, such as renal osteodystrophy, osteoporosis, osteomalacia, primary hyperparathyroidism, complex regional pain syndrome, and Pagets disease Bone scans are useful in a wide range of conditions. A common reason to have a bone scan is for examination of pain, in which bone scan can assist in identifying whether the source of the pain if from bone pathology or form soft tissue trauma. There are no specific preparations needed for radionuclide bone scan when using the tracer that map calcium metabolism, F-18 NaF or Tc-99m MDP. Patient should continue take their medications normally and eat normally. It is helpful to stay hydrated since the radiotracers are eliminated through the urine. Bone scans were known to emit much more radiation than CT and radiography. It must be kept in mind when considering whether or not to perform scans on a child. [108] Before the bone scan, the patient should make it known if she is or might be pregnant and if she is breast feeding. The patient can use formula for 1 to 2 days after the scanning to wait until the radioactive tracer is gone from the body. The patient should report to the doctor if he or she have had an X-ray test utilizing barium as a contrast material, such as a barium enema or have taken a medication that contains bismuth within the past 4 days because barium and bismuth can interfere with test results of the scanning. The patient should limit his or her fluids for up to 4 hours before commencing the the test for the patient will be instructed to drink extra fluids after the injection of the tracer. The patient will empty his or her bladder right before the scan. Most probably the patient will have to wait for at least 1 to 3 hours after the injection of the tracer before your bone scan is done. [144] The images produced by the bone scan should depict that the radioactive material has been distributed evenly all over the body. There must be no areas of increased or decreased distribution. Hot spots are portions with an increased distribution of the radioactive material. On the other hand cold spots are areas that show lesser of the amount of radioactive material. [143] Many false-positive results can be expected among older adults. Discitis, osteomyelitis, metastatic disease, rheumatoid arthritis, degenerative spondylosis and ankylosing spondylodis may result in abnormal findings in the spine that are not directly related to acute trauma. False-negative results may occur in the first hours after acute trauma. If possible, 72 hours should be allowed to pass prior to nuclear bone scanning of the lumbar spine is attempted. [127] Thermography Thermography is a noninvasive procedure that images infrared radiation (heat) released by the body surface. It is based on the principle that alterations in different of body functions alter the cutaneous vascular supply. Pain is a complicated phenomenon that cannot be simplified to a direct correlation with cutaneous heat production. Thermography. Thermography does not take a picture of pain itself; it does reveal pathophysiologic conditions related with soft tissue, circulatory neurovascular and musculoskeletal disorders.There are two type of thermography. It includes liquid crystal or contact and electroninc or noncontact thermography. [129] The contact thermography utilizes cholesterol crystals that changes in color with the variations of surface temperature. The crystals are placed inside inflatable transparent boxes with one thermosensitive, flexible side that is applied to the body of the individual. Each of the boxes has a limited temperature range and its utilization for examination requires proper selection of the box with accompanying proper temperature range. An image is taken of the box to record the patterns of surface temperature. The box is chosen by trial and error method. The advantage of contact thermography includes the absence of radiation, much lower cost than electronic thermography and much easier to use. Electronic thermography uses an infrared radiation sensor that converts heat reading to electrical signals that are displayed on a black-and-white or colored monitor. A picture can be taken from the video screen. It can be also stored on a computer. This system has the advantage of viewing large are as of the body during a single examination. Examinations must be conducted in an air-conditioned, draft-free room. The ambient temperature must be between 68 degrees to 72 degrees Fahrenheit. The patient should also be instructed to refrain from cigarette smoking for the day of the test. Furthermore, the patient should refrain from taking pain medications, physical therapy and exposure to sunlight for at least 24 hours. The patient must be in equilibrium with room temperature for 30 to 60 minutes before the beginning of the procedure. The examination will be postponed if the patient is febrile. [129] The examination of lumbosacral spine and lower legs with contact thermography consists of individual images of buttocks, posterior and lateral thighs, lower legs, dorsa of the feet, and toes. The examination requires 1 to 2 hours to complete. Abnomalities in the physiologic temperature distribution pattern also indicates alterations. Acute pain is said to be associated with increased heat whereas chronic pain is related to decreased temperature. Increased temperature is found over areas involved in an inflammatory process. Studies have stated a close correlation between abnormal thermograms and surgically proven discs. Investigators have also found that patients with disc herniation have a thermography and myelography accuracy rate of 95% and 84% correspondingly. [214] Thermographic findings correlated with magnetic resonance, myelography and computed tomography abnormalities in 94%, 80% and 84%. Twenty two magnetic resonance scan of patients with prolapsed of the disc associated wit h nerve root lesion, 95% of them had leg abnormalities on thermography. [129] There is a good relationship between changes in symmetry of heat patterns and changes in pain intensity for most of the disorders that causes chronic pain. Thermography has been reported to useful in differentiating pain-free from pained subjects reporting back pain, knee pain, and leg pain. Thermography consistently indicates painful areas among patients with spinal cord injury. Ultrasound Imaging Ultrasound is a type of imaging which uses high-frequency sound waves to look at visceral organs and structures of the body. Ultrasound imaging of the musculoskeletal system is painless and safe. It is also called as ultrasound scanning or sonography. It involves the use of a probe or small transducer and ultrasound gel placed directly on the surface of the skin. The transducer transmits high-frequency sound waves through the gel into the body. Then, the transducer utilizes the sounds that bounce back and use them to create images in the computer. There is no risk for radiation because ultrasound imaging does not utilize ionizing radiation like what is used in radiography. Since sonographic images are captured in real-time, they can show the structure and the body’s internal organ movements, including the blood flow through the blood vessels. Ultrasound imaging is noninvasive medical test that aids physicians diagnose and treat medical disorders. Musculoskeletal ultrasound pro vides pictures of muscle, ligament, tendons, joints and soft tissue throughout the body. [142] Ultrasound images are commonly used to help diagnose certain musculoskeletal conditions such as: tendon tears; muscle tears, masses or fluid collections; tears or sprain of ligaments; fluid effusion or inflammation; early alterations caused by rheumatoid arthritis; nerve entrapment; ganglionic cysts; benign and malignant soft tissue tumors; hernias; foreign bodies; and dislocations. [142] Patients should be instructed to wear loose-fitting, comfortable clothing for the examination. The patient may be required to remove some of the clothing and accessories in the area to be examined. Ultrasound examinations are sensitive to motion. An active or crying child can lengthen the examination process. No other preparation is required. Musculoskeletal ultrasound evaluation is usually completed within 15 to 30 minutes but can take longer. Ultrasound may have difficulty penetrating the bone, hence only the outer surface can only be viewed. There are also limitations on the depth the sound waves can penetrate, thus deeper internal structures of larger patients may not be seen easily. [142]

Encroachment in the North East Region of Nigeria

Encroachment in the North East Region of Nigeria DESERTIFICATION OR DESERT ENCROACHMENT can result from a change in climate or from human action, and it is often difficult to distinguish between the two. This has commonly led to confusion and misconceptions. A temporary or long-continued deterioration of climate may accentuate the harmful consequences of human occupation of the land and vice versa. It has often been suggested that mans activities have resulted in climatic deterioration, but this is difficult to substantiate. In any case it is important to attempt to assess the relative contribution of climate and man in the process of desertification in order to decide on the ameliorative measures that can best be taken and to estimate the likelihood of their success. Deserts are not expanding everywhere in Africa. Irrigation has converted what had been desert into highly productive cropland; afforestation has at least locally reclaimed the waste. However it is widely thought that the Sahara, the Kalahari and other desert and semi-desert regions are expanding. Why should this assumption be made? It has not always been based, I would suggest, on sound evidence. Students of classical writings in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were led to conclude that North Africa had been much more highly productive in Roman times. Many of them were inclined to explain the deterioration in terms of desiccation, though as early as 1828 the Copenhagen botanist Schow showed that it was unlikely that the temperature and rainfall of the region were very different in classical times from his own. Colonial administrators in the early twentieth century, comparing conditions at the tropical desert margins with those described by late nineteenth century explorers and seeing the ruins of ancient imperial capitals in the Western Sudan, also convinced themselves that the rainfall was diminishing Foresters and agriculturalists dismayed by the destructive land use practices of cultivators and graziers, so different from those they knew in north-west Europe, warned the governments of the African colonies of the dangers that threatened. As a result the idea of desert expansion, of an advancing Sahara, became firmly rooted  in the minds of the public at large. At the present day we find popular works on environmental deterioration conveying the same messages. Thus the Ehrlichs write the vast Sahara desert itself is largely man-made, the result of overgrazing, faulty irrigation, deforestation, perhaps combined with a shift in the course of a jet stream. Today the Sahara is advancing southward on a broad front at a rate of several miles per year. The recent dry years and their consequences may seem to substantiate such crude assessments of the situation. The African deserts are not man-made dustbowls; they are to be ascribed primarily to the continents geographical position. Africa lies almost entirely within 30 ° of the equator and a large part of its total area is occupied by dry descending air and receives little rain. Furthermore, the temperatures at low altitudes are generally high throughout most of the year so that water losses from land and water surfaces are high, especially in the tropical regions of low rainfall and relative humidity. The Sahara and the Kalahari are to be explained primarily in these terms. The Namib desert is associated with the cold Benguela current offshore, and in East Africa locally dry and semi-desert areas lie in the lee of highlands which have already drained the moist air masses from the oceans. Nevertheless, there are very extensive marginal areas where land use practices determine whether they shall be productive or unproductive in the long term. A great deal has been learned about African deserts in the last few decades. Aerial and space photography and the work of scientists in a number of fields have greatly extended our ability to appreciate the nature of the desert lands and the processes at work on their margins. We have the long series of publications of UNESCOs Arid Zone Research Symposia; there have been WMO and FAO studies of semi-arid regions; the University of Arizona has published Deserts of the World, an appraisal of research into their physical and biological environments (1968) and Arid Lands in Perspective (1969). The publications of the Pan-African Congresses on Prehistory and the Quaternary, of ASEQUA (Association Senegalaise pour lEtude du Quaternaire de lOuest Africain), and of Dr van Zinderen Bakker in his series on the Palaeoecology of Africa have  brought together the results of the investigations of a host of geologists, geographers,  archaeologists, botanists and other specialists, all of whose w ork has a bearing on the subject we are considering. Soil scientists and hydrologists, foresters and agriculturalists, anthropologists and historians have all made their contributions to our pool of information and we should now be in a much better position to view the whole question of desertification in its true perspective than were our predecessors a generation ago. Let us try to do this, by examining first the question of changing climates, then the nature of human interference, and finally the ways of measuring desert encroachment and the possible means of taking action against it. It has not been found possible to distinguish clearly any simple long term trends or regular periodicities in the climate, though many attempts have been made to do so, and it is necessary to adopt an empirical historical approach to the subject. In tracing what is known of the history of Africas climate it is useful to gain perspective by looking at the changes over the last century against the background of the last several thousand years. As pointed out by R. O. Whyte, we should distinguish major changes in climate, in or out of pluvial lasting thousands of years, from minor changes lasting hundreds of years, and from variations or trends which are experienced for 10 to 50 years.1 Each time-scale has its own biological significance. The shorter period variations are superimposed on the longer period fluctuations, and we must recognize  that as we attempt to penetrate further into the past, so our ability to distinguish minor oscillations diminishes and only the major changes can be detected. The role of man:- Mans role in desert encroachment is a very ancient one. He has known how to make fire since late Acheulian times; for almost 10,000 years he has herded his animak at the desert margins and grown his crops in the more favoured areas. He has established large settlements and cut wood for fuel and buildings over a similar period. Burning of the vegetation is possibly not a very important agency in the process of desertification; grass and trees in vulnerable areas are generally too sparse to burn readily. An exception to this general rule might be woodland alongside watercourses which has probably been largely eliminated in many semi-arid regions of Africa, possibly by fire. Gallery forest is a prominent feature of the savanna lands, and the concentration of what vegetation there is in deserts like the Sahara alongside watercourses is very striking. In the intermediate zones, streamside vegetation is sometimes less evident than one might expect it to be. Burning might possibly be the ex planation. A careful study of ERTS imagery would throw much light on the timing and areal incidence of burning. Heavy grazing by wild animals cannot be entirely ruled out as a cause of desert encroachment in the past. Certainly the eighteenth and early nineteenth century accounts of the enormous herds of antelope at the margins of the Kalahari and in the arid parts of Kenya, for example, suggest that their effect on the vegetation must have been very great. Animal populations increase and decrease in waves and the peak populations may not coincide with the maximum availability of food. However, the balance between available food and the bio-mass is probably better kept by wild animal species with varied food preferences than by man and his livestock. It seems likely that browsing and grazing by wild animals may maintain grassland conditions and that with their replacement by domestic animals woodland made up of thorny species of shrubs and trees may replace the grass. This seems to have occurred notably in the Karoo of southern Africa in recent decades. Bush has moved east and north replacing sweet grass veld, while extensive areas in the west are said to have become virtual desert. The nomads and their herds of cattle, roaming the margins of the Sahara, resemble game animals on Serengeti in adjusting their movements to the availability of water and pasture. However their movements have been increasingly restricted by political frontiers, taxation arrangements, and the occupation of grazing land by agriculturalists. Particularly important in this respect are the dry seasons grazing lands that have been taken over for irrigation. At the margins of the Kalahari, the pastoralists of eastern Botswana live in large villages and take their herds out over the extensive gracing land to the west in the dry season. This seems to be a sensible response to the natural conditions. However, there is always a tendency for the herds to build up in good years and then the numbers are kept high in dry years so that the pastures are eaten out. In recent years the risks of desertification as a result of overgrazing has increased as a result of three factors: The increase in numbers of livestock in many areas, e.g., north-east Nigeria. It would be useful to have more information about this. Doubling of numbers in a decade seems to have occurred in some areas, although livestock numbers are notoriously inaccurate. The increasing proportion of cattle in small herds often belonging to sedentary cultivators and herded by small boys, who cannot wander far, resulting in local overgrazing while other areas with pasture -main ungrazed. The provision of water in certain areas, such as parts of the artesian basin near Lake Chad, resulting in cattle remaining near wells and eating out the grazing round about instead of moving off to the rivers and other areas with dry season water and grass. The risks of serious deterioration are greatest when a succession of good years is followed by a period of long-continued drought. Woodcutting is a serious matter in many areas. Pastoralists are partly to blame. In places like Tibesti they cut foliage to feed their camels and use branches to build enclosures for their goats. However it might be noted that a considerable part of the woody growth in some areas springs from posts that were used for the enclosures and have taken root. Another threat comes from the demand for fuel in towns. The people in the surrounding countryside find the sale of wood to the townpeople a useful supplement to their meager cash incomes. K. J. Mortimore and J. Wilson have estimated that nearly three-quarters of Kano citys firewood consumption of some 75,000 tons per year for its population of 300,000, is brought in by donkeys mainly from within a radius of about 20 km. Although there is a return cargo of manure (over 10 per cent of the total applied to the intensely cultivated fields around the city), this trade represents the felling of thousands of trees every year. As Kano and simi lar towns grow at rates of 5-10 per cent annually, one can expect the woodland around to become very sparse. Alongside roads, at a distance from the larger settlements, wide areas are also being cleared by people who add to their income by making charcoal which is then carried into town by passing lorries. When the woodland has disappeared from such areas only animal dung remains for fuel for local consumption, and all the sylvan produce, honey, fruits and beans, medicaments and so on, are lost. Woodland in agricultural areas, as in the Sudan zone and the Sahel, is particularly important. It provides foodstuff for animals and man; it brings up nutrients from below that are released to the base-poor sandy soils from the decaying leaves and from the substances washed off the leaves; it brakes the speed of the wind, reduces the rate of evaporation at the end of the rains and the risk of soil blowing away towards the end of the dry season, and it provides shade for man and beast. Not least, it has an aesthetic value in improving the appearance of the landscape. Particularly important is the Winterthorn, Acacia albida, which is in leaf during the dry season and yields beans from great woody pods before the rains come. Multiplication of this tree should be  encouraged throughout the Sudan and Sahel. Cultivation in marginal areas during periods of higher than normal rainfall is especially dangerous, and is perhaps the main cause of desertification against which it may be necessary to take preventive action. When dry years follow years of relative plenty, ploughed soil-or soil from which the sparse cover of natural plants has been eliminated by cultivation-is at the mercy of the winds. The fine clays and silts are carried away as dust, and the sand drifts into dunes.The effect is likely to be irreversible except at great cost. Measuring the rate of desert encroachment In 1882 land classified as either desert or wasteland amounted to 9-4 percent of the total land on Earth. In 1952 it had risen to 23-3 percent. I give this quotation not because it is true but because it is meaningless. No definitions are given and it is not dear whether the difference between the figures is the result of the spread of desert conditions or, much more likely, whether definitions of desert and availabi lity of knowledge were different on the two occasions. However, it does bring out the point that it is extremely difficult to measure and state in numerical terms the rate of desert encroachment-though less difficult now than it was in the past. In the past there has been a good deal of reliance on such indicators as the  movement of towns and tribes, and on the chance observations of travelers and the tales they were told. Writing in 1921, F. Migeod noted that the capital of Kanem was shifted to positions successively further south; Bovill brought together additional historical evidence of the encroachment of the Sahara on the Sudan. Both were writing soon after the dry period of the early twentieth century. In 1935 E. T. Stebbing produced a map of West Africa showing the present advance of sand and attempted to estimate its rate of progress. The basis for all such calculations was very flimsy, but figures of 200 km. in 200 years were commonly given. The rainfall gradient from south to north in West Africa is remarkably regular and mean values diminish northwards by about 100 mm. per 100 km. in the Sahelian zone, so that the kinds of changes in the precipitation that are likely to have taken place cannot alone explain suc h a shift. All the writers pointed to the depredations of nomads, firing of forest lands and so on. Similar alarm bells were rung in East and South Africa and in all these areas government commissions were appointed to investigate. They confirmed that rainfall was not progressively decreasing, but agreed that the vegetation cover was deteriorating and in some areas water-tables were falling and rivers drying up. There is an interesting exception to the usual story of Hearing of the vegetation  being followed by a fall in the water-table. It was found in northern Nigeria in the 1950s that in spite of the spread of cultivation and the destruction of woodland in western Bornu, in the preceding 25 years the water-table had risen phenomenally, levels rising in some wells by more than 100 feet and perennial springs breaking out to feed small lakes.84 It was postulated that the destruction of woodland, by reducing the loss by transpiration of water brought up from depth by the tree roots, had increased the volume left to percolate deeply into the pervious sedimentary rocks. Similar reports come from West Australia and East Africa, and it seems that we may not be able to use the height of the water table by itself as a sound indicator of desertification. On the whole we are concerned with the vegetation cover, its completeness or  otherwise, its composition and its productivity. In assessing the rate of change in any or all of these we are faced with the difficulties of very great variability over short distances according to soil, slope, availability of water and, above all, intensity and manner of land use. Quantitative assessments of the plant cover at a particular place and at a particular time can now be made by using suitable sampling and statistical procedures, and extrapolating from the sample areas by using aerial photographs and other methods of remote sensing. It may be possible to monitor changes in the situation from season to season by satellite observations. Changes over a long period of time can now be assessed by comparing air photographs taken at intervals of 25 years in many of the  desert marginal areas. The Trimetrigon photography taken by the US Air Force of much of Africa during the Second World War could b e particularly useful in this respect (consisting of strips of vertical photos with obliques on either side). In some areas, such as Morocco and parts of southern Africa, photographic cover is available spanning an even longer interval of time. Opportunities for comparative studies of this kind do not seem to have been widely exploited and might be encouraged. One of the more interesting attempts to use air photographs to trace the shifting of the edge of the desert  is that of M. Clos-Arceduc who, from a study of the nature of the vegetation patterns in the Sahelian zone known as brousse tigree has come to the conclusion that they indicate a shift south of the vegetation zones through 150 km. in the Niamey region over 2 centuries or less. Combating Desert Encroachment Except for arid areas that yield oil, and the limited irrigated areas near the Nile, Niger, Senegal and Lake Chad, the lands at the margins of African deserts are poor and not likely to be highly productive. There is little to be said in favour of great schemes for climatic amelioration involving, for example, the diversion of great rivers such as the Zambesi and the creation (or reconstitution) of great lakes like those that existed in the humid periods of the Pleistocene. Such lakes would be extremely expensive to make, they would flood land which is now productive, and it is unlikely that they would lead to an increase of rainfall that would yield returns in any way commensurate with the costs involved. It is conceivable that the destruction of rain forest in the Congo basin, for  example, may have reduced the rainfall of areas further from the equator; by how much it is impossible to say. There is no question of afforestation in such a region on a scale sufficient to restore th e situation. In special circumstances cloud-seeding may be found to be rewarding, and it is possible that in the future ways will be found of modifying the general circulation advantageously. I would not regard any of these as being of much concern to us at present. At present, populations in the semi-arid lands of the continent are increasing at rates of about 3 per cent annually, as they are elsewhere in Africa. In the near future, however, it is possible that the rural population, especially the pastoral population, may decline. This has already happened in parts of the Sahara and Libya affected by oil production. There are three trends that are more generally effective. Firstly, young people going to school are becoming literate and have greater expectations than their parents had; secondly, people are consuming more and have the desire to consume more than they did; thirdly, people are congregating more near roads and in large towns. It is just as important to keep track of these changes in the human geography of the desert margins as it is to monitor changes in the vegetation cover and to calculate trends in precipitation. If effective measures are to be taken against desertification, the people involved must be persuaded of the advantages to themselves. Wherever possible measures should be of a positive rather than of a restrictive character. Thus, if it is inevitable that people are going to concentrate in large settlements in sensitive areas, then as well as attempting to regulate the felling of trees for fuel and timber, authorities may be able to cheapen alternative supplies of fuel and construction materials, provide young fruit trees at low cost, and so on. Perhaps the main problems are presented by pastoralists, whose traditional  systems do not fit neatly into the framework of a modern state. Nomadic flexibility is an advantage to people living in fluctuating, marginal environmental conditions, and nomadic mobility allows good use to be made of variable grazing. Settlement of pastoralists is expedient politically and has some economic advantages, but the greater rigidity seems to involve considerable risks of disaster when the drought years come again, as they will. In UNESCOs Use and Conservation of the Biosphere, it is noted that nomadism as a careful pastoral continuum is the least traumatic of human influences and as a form of husbandry utilizes areas which could not be utilized by man in any other way. I think we have yet to find a better alternative.